Sciences that involve attempts to understand the nature, origin, evolution, and behavior of the Earth or of its parts and to comprehend its place in the universe, especially in the solar system. Understanding has advanced primarily through improved appreciation of the complex, usually cyclical interactions that take place among distinct parts of the Earth such as the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Geophysics is the study of the physics of the Earth, emphasizing its physical structure and dynamics. Geochemistry is the study of the chemistry of the Earth, dealing with its composition and chemical change. Geology is the study of the solid Earth and of the processes that have formed and modified it throughout its 4.5-billion-year history.